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Lab Tools in BioTech Design

The real instruments and techniques scientists use to read, edit, build and test living systems. Each entry says what the tool is and what it is used for, with one published source. Brand names are avoided where possible; a tool's name in a cited paper is not an endorsement.

Editing and building DNACopying and measuring DNAReading DNAGrowing and handling cellsSeeing and measuringBuilding tissues and chipsMicroscopy and imagingStructural and chemical analysisMaterials testingFabricationCell and tissue cultureSequencing and measurementComputational designLab automationBiosensors and electrophysiologyFermentation and bioprocessing

Editing and building DNA

  • CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing
    What it is: A two-part tool taken from a bacterial immune system: the Cas9 protein cuts DNA, and a short guide RNA tells it where to cut.
    Used for: Lets researchers change a chosen spot in a genome, for example to switch a gene off or to study what it does.
    Source: Jinek M. et al. (2012). A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1225829
  • Base editing
    What it is: A CRISPR-based method that changes a single DNA letter into another without cutting both strands of the DNA.
    Used for: Used to correct or introduce single-letter changes (point mutations) in DNA.
    Source: Komor A.C. et al. (2016). Programmable editing of a target base in genomic DNA without double-stranded DNA cleavage. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature17946
  • Gibson assembly
    What it is: A one-tube method that joins overlapping pieces of DNA using a mix of three enzymes.
    Used for: Used to build long DNA constructs from smaller pieces; the original paper assembled molecules up to several hundred kilobases.
    Source: Gibson D.G. et al. (2009). Enzymatic assembly of DNA molecules up to several hundred kilobases. Nature Methods. doi:10.1038/nmeth.1318
  • Directed evolution
    What it is: A lab method that copies evolution: make many variants of a gene, test them, keep the best, and repeat.
    Used for: Used to design enzymes and other proteins with new or improved functions. Frances Arnold shared the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the directed evolution of enzymes.
    Source: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2018, press release. NobelPrize.org. link

Copying and measuring DNA

  • PCR and the thermocycler
    What it is: The polymerase chain reaction copies a chosen stretch of DNA many times. A thermocycler is the machine that heats and cools the samples in repeated cycles. A heat-stable polymerase from a hot-spring bacterium made the process practical.
    Used for: Makes enough copies of DNA to detect, study or build with it.
    Source: Saiki R.K. et al. (1988). Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Science. doi:10.1126/science.2448875
  • Real-time (quantitative) PCR
    What it is: A version of PCR in which a fluorescent signal is measured during every cycle, so the DNA can be tracked as it is copied.
    Used for: Used to measure how much of a particular DNA sequence is in a sample.
    Source: Higuchi R. et al. (1993). Kinetic PCR analysis: real-time monitoring of DNA amplification reactions. Bio/Technology. doi:10.1038/nbt0993-1026
  • Gel electrophoresis
    What it is: An electric current pulls DNA through a slab of gel. Short pieces move faster than long ones, so the pieces separate by size.
    Used for: Used to check DNA pieces by size, for example after PCR, and to purify a chosen piece.
    Source: Lee P.Y. et al. (2012). Agarose gel electrophoresis for the separation of DNA fragments. Journal of Visualized Experiments. doi:10.3791/3923

Reading DNA

  • Sanger DNA sequencing
    What it is: A method that reads the order of DNA letters using special 'chain-terminating' building blocks that stop copying at each letter.
    Used for: Used to read and confirm DNA sequences, for example to check that an edit or a built construct is correct.
    Source: Sanger F., Nicklen S. & Coulson A.R. (1977). DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. PNAS. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463
  • High-throughput (next-generation) sequencing
    What it is: Machines that read millions of short DNA fragments in parallel, using reversible terminator chemistry, and piece them together by computer.
    Used for: Used to read whole genomes; the cited paper sequenced a whole human genome this way.
    Source: Bentley D.R. et al. (2008). Accurate whole human genome sequencing using reversible terminator chemistry. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature07517
  • Nanopore sequencing
    What it is: A single DNA strand is threaded through a tiny pore, and changes in electrical current are read as DNA letters. Some devices are small enough to plug into a laptop.
    Used for: Used to read long stretches of DNA, including outside large labs.
    Source: Jain M. et al. (2016). The Oxford Nanopore MinION: delivery of nanopore sequencing to the genomics community. Genome Biology. doi:10.1186/s13059-016-1103-0

Growing and handling cells

  • Bioreactors and cell culture
    What it is: Vessels that keep living cells fed and at the right conditions so they grow and make a product.
    Used for: Used to produce protein medicines in cultivated mammalian cells, such as Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells.
    Source: Wurm F.M. (2004). Production of recombinant protein therapeutics in cultivated mammalian cells. Nature Biotechnology. doi:10.1038/nbt1026
  • Centrifuges and density-gradient centrifugation
    What it is: A centrifuge spins samples very fast so heavier material moves outward. In a density gradient, molecules settle where their density matches the liquid.
    Used for: Used to separate cells, cell parts and molecules. In a famous 1958 experiment it separated DNA by density and showed how DNA copies itself.
    Source: Meselson M. & Stahl F.W. (1958). The replication of DNA in Escherichia coli. PNAS. doi:10.1073/pnas.44.7.671
  • Biosafety cabinets
    What it is: Enclosed workbenches that use filtered (HEPA) airflow to protect the worker, the sample and the room.
    Used for: Used for safe work with cells and microbes; US guidance on their use is in the CDC/NIH manual Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL).
    Source: CDC & NIH. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), 6th edition. link

Seeing and measuring

  • Fluorescent proteins and fluorescence microscopy
    What it is: A fluorescence microscope shines light of one colour and sees glow of another. Green fluorescent protein (GFP), first found in a jellyfish, can be made by other living cells as a glowing tag.
    Used for: Used to see where and when a gene is switched on inside living cells and organisms.
    Source: Chalfie M. et al. (1994). Green fluorescent protein as a marker for gene expression. Science. doi:10.1126/science.8303295
  • Cryo-electron microscopy
    What it is: Samples are frozen very fast and imaged with electrons, which can show much smaller details than light.
    Used for: Used to work out the 3D shapes of biomolecules. It was recognised by the 2017 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
    Source: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2017, press release. NobelPrize.org. link
  • Flow cytometry and cell sorting (FACS)
    What it is: Cells flow one by one past lasers that measure their size and fluorescent labels. A sorter can then separate chosen cells.
    Used for: Used to count and sort cell types, for example immune cells.
    Source: Herzenberg L.A. et al. (2002). The history and future of the fluorescence activated cell sorter and flow cytometry: a view from Stanford. Clinical Chemistry. doi:10.1093/clinchem/48.10.1819
  • Mass spectrometry
    What it is: An instrument that turns molecules into charged particles and measures their mass very precisely.
    Used for: Used to identify and measure the proteins in a sample (proteomics).
    Source: Aebersold R. & Mann M. (2003). Mass spectrometry-based proteomics. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature01511
  • Protein structure prediction (AlphaFold)
    What it is: A computer system that predicts a protein's 3D shape from its sequence of amino acids.
    Used for: Used to predict protein shapes to guide experiments and design.
    Source: Jumper J. et al. (2021). Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold. Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03819-2

Building tissues and chips

  • Microfluidic chips
    What it is: Small chips with channels that move tiny amounts of liquid in a controlled way.
    Used for: Used to run small-scale tests and analyses with very small sample volumes.
    Source: Whitesides G.M. (2006). The origins and the future of microfluidics. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature05058
  • Organ-on-a-chip
    What it is: A microfluidic device lined with living human cells that copies some functions of an organ. The cited lung-on-a-chip mimicked breathing movements.
    Used for: Used to study how organs respond to drugs, germs and particles.
    Source: Huh D. et al. (2010). Reconstituting organ-level lung functions on a chip. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1188302
  • 3D bioprinters
    What it is: Printers that place cells and supporting gels layer by layer to build 3D structures.
    Used for: Used in research to build tissue structures; the cited review covers the methods and the challenges that remain.
    Source: Murphy S.V. & Atala A. (2014). 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nature Biotechnology. doi:10.1038/nbt.2958

Microscopy and imaging

  • Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
    What it is: A microscope that sweeps a fine beam of electrons across a surface. It builds a detailed, 3D-looking picture from the signals that come back.
    Used for: Shows the surface texture of materials, scaffolds and cells, at scales far too small for light to show.
    Source: Smith et al. (1955). The scanning electron microscope and its fields of application. British Journal of Applied Physics. doi:10.1088/0508-3443/6/11/304
  • Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
    What it is: A microscope that shines electrons, not light, through a very thin slice of a sample. This gives much higher magnification.
    Used for: Reveals the inside of cells and the fine structure of materials, down to near-atomic detail.
    Source: Knoll et al. (1932). Das Elektronenmikroskop. Zeitschrift für Physik. doi:10.1007/BF01342199
  • Atomic force microscope (AFM)
    What it is: A microscope that 'feels' a surface with a tiny sharp tip on a flexible arm, like a record needle.
    Used for: Maps surfaces at the nanometre scale. It also measures how stiff or sticky a material or cell is.
    Source: Binnig et al. (1986). Atomic Force Microscope. Physical Review Letters. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.56.930
  • Scanning tunnelling microscope (STM)
    What it is: A microscope that holds a sharp metal tip just above a conducting surface. It measures the tiny electric current that jumps the gap.
    Used for: Images individual atoms on surfaces and helps researchers study new electronic materials.
    Source: Binnig et al. (1982). Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling Microscopy. Physical Review Letters. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.57
  • Confocal microscope
    What it is: A light microscope that uses a pinhole to block out-of-focus light. It sees one thin layer of a sample at a time.
    Used for: Builds sharp 3D images of glowing-labelled cells and tissues, one layer at a time.
    Source: Minsky (1988). Memoir on inventing the confocal scanning microscope. Scanning. doi:10.1002/sca.4950100403
  • Two-photon microscope
    What it is: A fluorescence microscope that fires pulses of infrared laser light. The dyes glow only at the exact focal spot.
    Used for: Images deeper inside living tissue, with less damage than ordinary fluorescence microscopy.
    Source: Denk et al. (1990). Two-Photon Laser Scanning Fluorescence Microscopy. Science. doi:10.1126/science.2321027
  • Light-sheet microscope
    What it is: A microscope that lights a sample from the side with a thin, flat sheet of light while a camera watches from above.
    Used for: Films whole small embryos and organoids in 3D for hours, with little light damage.
    Source: Huisken et al. (2004). Optical Sectioning Deep Inside Live Embryos by Selective Plane Illumination Microscopy. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1100035
  • Lattice light-sheet microscope
    What it is: A light-sheet microscope that uses a very thin, patterned sheet of light.
    Used for: Films fast events inside living cells in 3D at high resolution.
    Source: Chen et al. (2014). Lattice light-sheet microscopy: Imaging molecules to embryos at high spatiotemporal resolution. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1257998
  • STED super-resolution microscopy
    What it is: A fluorescence method that adds a second, doughnut-shaped laser beam. The doughnut switches off the glow around the focal spot, shrinking the spot.
    Used for: Shows cell structures smaller than the usual limit of light microscopes.
    Source: Hell et al. (1994). Breaking the diffraction resolution limit by stimulated emission: stimulated-emission-depletion fluorescence microscopy. Optics Letters. doi:10.1364/OL.19.000780
  • Single-molecule localisation microscopy (PALM)
    What it is: A super-resolution method that switches on only a few glowing molecules at a time. It pinpoints each one precisely.
    Used for: Maps where individual proteins sit inside cells, at nanometre detail.
    Source: Betzig et al. (2006). Imaging Intracellular Fluorescent Proteins at Nanometer Resolution. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1127344
  • Single-molecule localisation microscopy (STORM)
    What it is: A super-resolution method that makes dye molecules blink on and off. It builds an image from thousands of pinpointed blinks.
    Used for: Images fine structures in cells, such as the cell skeleton, beyond the normal light limit.
    Source: Rust et al. (2006). Sub-diffraction-limit imaging by stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM). Nature Methods. doi:10.1038/nmeth929
  • Structured illumination microscopy (SIM)
    What it is: A super-resolution method that lights a sample with striped patterns. A computer then recovers finer detail from the stripes.
    Used for: Doubles the sharpness of fluorescence images of living cells.
    Source: Gustafsson (2000). Surpassing the lateral resolution limit by a factor of two using structured illumination microscopy. Journal of Microscopy. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2818.2000.00710.x
  • Expansion microscopy
    What it is: A method that locks a sample into a gel that swells evenly. Tiny structures grow big enough to see with an ordinary microscope.
    Used for: Reveals nanoscale detail in cells and tissues without a super-resolution microscope.
    Source: Chen et al. (2015). Expansion microscopy. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1260088
  • Optical coherence tomography (OCT)
    What it is: An imaging method that makes cross-section pictures from reflected near-infrared light. Think ultrasound, but with light.
    Used for: Images layers just under a surface, such as the eye's retina or engineered tissue.
    Source: Huang et al. (1991). Optical Coherence Tomography. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1957169
  • Photoacoustic imaging
    What it is: An imaging method where pulses of light warm tissue slightly. The tissue gives off sound waves, which are picked up and turned into a picture.
    Used for: Images blood vessels and tissue deeper than light-only methods can reach.
    Source: Wang et al. (2012). Photoacoustic Tomography: In Vivo Imaging from Organelles to Organs. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1216210
  • Cryo-EM sample vitrification
    What it is: A way of freezing a sample so fast that water turns to glass-like ice, not crystals. Molecules keep their natural shape.
    Used for: Prepares proteins and cells for cryo-electron microscopy.
    Source: Dubochet et al. (1988). Cryo-electron microscopy of vitrified specimens. Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics. doi:10.1017/S0033583500004297

Structural and chemical analysis

  • X-ray crystallography
    What it is: A method that shines X-rays through a crystal. The pattern of scattered rays reveals where the atoms sit.
    Used for: Finds the 3D shapes of proteins, drugs and materials. The first protein structure, myoglobin, was solved this way.
    Source: Kendrew et al. (1958). A Three-Dimensional Model of the Myoglobin Molecule Obtained by X-Ray Analysis. Nature. doi:10.1038/181662a0
  • Powder X-ray diffraction and Rietveld refinement
    What it is: X-ray diffraction done on a powder instead of a single crystal. A computer method then fits the whole pattern at once.
    Used for: Identifies which crystal forms (phases) are in a material and how they are arranged.
    Source: Rietveld (1969). A profile refinement method for nuclear and magnetic structures. Journal of Applied Crystallography. doi:10.1107/S0021889869006558
  • Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)
    What it is: A method that measures X-rays scattered at very small angles by molecules floating in a liquid.
    Used for: Reveals the overall size and shape of proteins and nanoparticles, no crystals needed.
    Source: Putnam et al. (2007). X-ray solution scattering (SAXS) combined with crystallography and computation: defining accurate macromolecular structures, conformations and assemblies in solution. Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics. doi:10.1017/S0033583507004635
  • Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
    What it is: A method that places a sample in a strong magnet and reads radio signals from the nuclei of its atoms.
    Used for: Works out molecule structures and how proteins move. The same physics powers MRI scanners.
    Source: Purcell et al. (1946). Resonance Absorption by Nuclear Magnetic Moments in a Solid. Physical Review. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.69.37
  • Electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry
    What it is: A way of spraying large molecules from a liquid as charged droplets, so a mass spectrometer can weigh them.
    Used for: Measures the mass of proteins and other big biomolecules.
    Source: Fenn et al. (1989). Electrospray Ionization for Mass Spectrometry of Large Biomolecules. Science. doi:10.1126/science.2675315
  • MALDI mass spectrometry
    What it is: A mass spectrometry method where a laser lifts large molecules off a crystal-like coating so they can be weighed.
    Used for: Identifies proteins, polymers and microbes quickly by their mass 'fingerprints'.
    Source: Karas et al. (1988). Laser desorption ionization of proteins with molecular masses exceeding 10,000 daltons. Analytical Chemistry. doi:10.1021/ac00171a028
  • Orbitrap mass analyser
    What it is: A mass spectrometer part where charged molecules circle a central electrode while swinging back and forth along it. The frequency of that swing reveals their mass very precisely.
    Used for: Used for high-accuracy measurement of proteins and small molecules.
    Source: Makarov (2000). Electrostatic Axially Harmonic Orbital Trapping: A High-Performance Technique of Mass Analysis. Analytical Chemistry. doi:10.1021/ac991131p
  • Raman spectroscopy
    What it is: A method that shines laser light on a sample and reads tiny colour shifts in the scattered light. The shifts act as a chemical fingerprint.
    Used for: Identifies materials and molecules without touching them, and usually without damaging them.
    Source: Raman et al. (1928). A New Type of Secondary Radiation. Nature. doi:10.1038/121501c0
  • Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)
    What it is: A boosted form of Raman spectroscopy. Molecules sit on rough metal surfaces that make their signal much stronger. The signal was first seen in 1974; in 1977 it was shown to come from a real enhancement effect.
    Used for: Detects very small amounts of chemicals.
    Source: Fleischmann et al. (1974). Raman spectra of pyridine adsorbed at a silver electrode. Chemical Physics Letters. doi:10.1016/0009-2614(74)85388-1 Also: Jeanmaire & Van Duyne (1977). Surface raman spectroelectrochemistry. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry.doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(77)80224-6
  • Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
    What it is: A method that measures which infrared 'colours' a sample absorbs. Each chemical bond absorbs its own set.
    Used for: Identifies materials and checks how proteins are folded.
    Source: Barth (2007). Infrared spectroscopy of proteins. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics. doi:10.1016/j.bbabio.2007.06.004
  • Circular dichroism spectroscopy
    What it is: A method that measures how differently a sample absorbs left- and right-twisted light.
    Used for: Checks whether a protein is folded into helices or sheets, and whether it stays folded.
    Source: Greenfield (2006). Using circular dichroism spectra to estimate protein secondary structure. Nature Protocols. doi:10.1038/nprot.2006.202
  • Partition chromatography
    What it is: A separation method where a mixture moves through a column holding two liquids that do not mix. Its parts travel at different speeds and come apart.
    Used for: A foundation of much of modern liquid and gas chromatography, used to separate and purify molecules.
    Source: Martin et al. (1941). A new form of chromatogram employing two liquid phases. Biochemical Journal. doi:10.1042/bj0351358
  • Gas chromatography
    What it is: A separation method that uses a gas to carry a vaporised mixture through a long, thin column.
    Used for: Separates and measures small molecules that evaporate easily, such as fuels or scents.
    Source: James et al. (1952). Gas-liquid partition chromatography: the separation and micro-estimation of volatile fatty acids from formic acid to dodecanoic acid. Biochemical Journal. doi:10.1042/bj0500679
  • SDS-PAGE protein gels
    What it is: A gel method that coats proteins in detergent, then uses electricity to pull them through a gel. They separate by size.
    Used for: Checks the size and purity of proteins.
    Source: Laemmli (1970). Cleavage of Structural Proteins during the Assembly of the Head of Bacteriophage T4. Nature. doi:10.1038/227680a0
  • Western blotting
    What it is: A method that moves separated proteins from a gel onto a membrane. Antibodies then find one chosen protein.
    Used for: Checks whether a particular protein is present, and how much.
    Source: Towbin et al. (1979). Electrophoretic transfer of proteins from polyacrylamide gels to nitrocellulose sheets: procedure and some applications. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.76.9.4350
  • ELISA
    What it is: A plate-based test where enzyme-linked antibodies change colour when a target molecule is present.
    Used for: Measures amounts of proteins and other molecules in many samples at once.
    Source: Engvall et al. (1971). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) quantitative assay of immunoglobulin G. Immunochemistry. doi:10.1016/0019-2791(71)90454-X
  • Dynamic light scattering (DLS)
    What it is: A method that watches how laser light flickers as tiny particles jiggle in a liquid.
    Used for: Used to measure the size of nanoparticles, proteins and clumps.
    Source: Stetefeld et al. (2016). Dynamic light scattering: a practical guide and applications in biomedical sciences. Biophysical Reviews. doi:10.1007/s12551-016-0218-6
  • Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)
    What it is: A sensor that spots molecules binding to a thin gold film. The binding changes how light reflects off the film.
    Used for: Measures how fast and how tightly molecules stick together.
    Source: Liedberg et al. (1983). Surface plasmon resonance for gas detection and biosensing. Sensors and Actuators. doi:10.1016/0250-6874(83)85036-7
  • Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC)
    What it is: An instrument that measures the tiny amounts of heat given off or taken in as two molecules bind.
    Used for: Measures how strongly molecules bind, such as a drug and its target.
    Source: Wiseman et al. (1989). Rapid measurement of binding constants and heats of binding using a new titration calorimeter. Analytical Biochemistry. doi:10.1016/0003-2697(89)90213-3
  • Nanopore protein reading
    What it is: A newer approach that pulls a protein chain through a tiny pore. Changes in electric current reveal what passes through.
    Used for: Being developed to read protein sequences one molecule at a time.
    Source: Motone et al. (2024). Multi-pass, single-molecule nanopore reading of long protein strands. Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07935-7

Materials testing

  • Rheometer
    What it is: An instrument that twists a soft material and measures how it flows or springs back.
    Used for: Measures how runny or stiff gels, bioinks and other soft materials are.
    Source: Zuidema et al. (2013). A protocol for rheological characterization of hydrogels for tissue engineering strategies. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials. doi:10.1002/jbm.b.33088
  • Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
    What it is: An instrument that heats a sample next to a reference and measures the extra heat the sample needs.
    Used for: Finds melting points and other changes in plastics, proteins and materials.
    Source: Watson et al. (1964). A Differential Scanning Calorimeter for Quantitative Differential Thermal Analysis. Analytical Chemistry. doi:10.1021/ac60213a019
  • Nanoindentation
    What it is: A test that presses a tiny hard tip into a material and measures how far it sinks.
    Used for: Measures the hardness and stiffness of thin films, coatings and small biological structures.
    Source: Oliver et al. (1992). An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments. Journal of Materials Research. doi:10.1557/JMR.1992.1564
  • Tensile testing
    What it is: A test that stretches a sample until it breaks, recording force and stretch the whole way.
    Used for: Measures strength, stretchiness and toughness, for example of spider silk.
    Source: Gosline et al. (1999). The mechanical design of spider silks: from fibroin sequence to mechanical function. Journal of Experimental Biology. doi:10.1242/jeb.202.23.3295
  • Contact angle measurement
    What it is: Measuring the angle a liquid droplet makes where it meets a surface.
    Used for: Shows how water-loving or water-repelling a surface is, which matters for coatings and implants.
    Source: Young (1805). III. An essay on the cohesion of fluids. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. doi:10.1098/rstl.1805.0005
  • Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM)
    What it is: A sensor built on a vibrating quartz crystal. Its frequency changes when a very thin layer of mass sticks to it.
    Used for: Weighs films and coatings down to billionths of a gram.
    Source: Sauerbrey (1959). Verwendung von Schwingquarzen zur Wägung dünner Schichten und zur Mikrowägung. Zeitschrift für Physik. doi:10.1007/BF01337937
  • Optical tweezers
    What it is: A tool that traps and moves tiny beads or cells with a tightly focused laser beam.
    Used for: Measures the very small forces made by single molecules and cells.
    Source: Ashkin et al. (1986). Observation of a single-beam gradient force optical trap for dielectric particles. Optics Letters. doi:10.1364/OL.11.000288
  • Magnetic tweezers
    What it is: A tool that uses magnets to pull on tiny magnetic beads attached to molecules.
    Used for: Stretches and twists single DNA molecules to measure their springiness.
    Source: Strick et al. (1996). The Elasticity of a Single Supercoiled DNA Molecule. Science. doi:10.1126/science.271.5257.1835
  • Traction force microscopy
    What it is: A method that tracks how cells bend the soft gel they sit on.
    Used for: Measures the pulling forces cells exert on their surroundings.
    Source: Dembo et al. (1999). Stresses at the Cell-to-Substrate Interface during Locomotion of Fibroblasts. Biophysical Journal. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(99)77386-8

Fabrication

  • FRESH bioprinting
    What it is: A 3D-printing method that prints soft gels inside a supporting gel bath, so they don't slump.
    Used for: Prints soft, tissue-like shapes, such as models of arteries or a heart.
    Source: Hinton et al. (2015). Three-dimensional printing of complex biological structures by freeform reversible embedding of suspended hydrogels. Science Advances. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1500758
  • Volumetric bioprinting
    What it is: A printing method that builds a whole object at once inside a vat of light-sensitive gel. Shaped light shines in from many angles.
    Used for: Makes soft, tissue-like shapes in seconds instead of layer by layer.
    Source: Bernal et al. (2019). Volumetric Bioprinting of Complex Living‐Tissue Constructs within Seconds. Advanced Materials. doi:10.1002/adma.201904209
  • Computed axial lithography
    What it is: A volumetric 3D-printing method that projects changing light patterns into a spinning vat of resin.
    Used for: Prints whole objects at once, even around existing parts.
    Source: Kelly et al. (2019). Volumetric additive manufacturing via tomographic reconstruction. Science. doi:10.1126/science.aau7114
  • Continuous liquid interface production (CLIP)
    What it is: A fast resin 3D-printing method. A thin oxygen layer at the window stops resin sticking, so the part can be pulled up nonstop.
    Used for: Prints detailed plastic parts much faster than layer-by-layer printing.
    Source: Tumbleston et al. (2015). Continuous liquid interface production of 3D objects. Science. doi:10.1126/science.aaa2397
  • Two-photon polymerisation
    What it is: A 3D-printing method that hardens resin only at a laser's focus, so it can make very tiny parts.
    Used for: Prints micro-scale structures, such as tiny scaffolds and lenses.
    Source: Kawata et al. (2001). Finer features for functional microdevices. Nature. doi:10.1038/35089130
  • Electrospinning
    What it is: A method that uses high voltage to pull a liquid polymer into extremely thin fibres.
    Used for: Makes nanofibre mats for tissue scaffolds, filters and wound dressings.
    Source: Reneker et al. (1996). Nanometre diameter fibres of polymer, produced by electrospinning. Nanotechnology. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/7/3/009
  • Soft lithography
    What it is: A set of methods that make tiny patterns with rubbery stamps and moulds, often made of silicone.
    Used for: Makes microfluidic chips and prints patterns of molecules or cells.
    Source: Xia et al. (1998). Soft Lithography. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19980316)37:5<550::AID-ANIE550>3.0.CO;2-G
  • Droplet microfluidics
    What it is: Chips that break a liquid into streams of tiny, evenly sized droplets.
    Used for: Runs huge numbers of tiny separate reactions or tests, one in each droplet.
    Source: Thorsen et al. (2001). Dynamic Pattern Formation in a Vesicle-Generating Microfluidic Device. Physical Review Letters. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.86.4163
  • Cell micropatterning
    What it is: Methods that print sticky islands of chosen shapes, so cells attach only there.
    Used for: Shows how a cell's shape and space affect how it behaves.
    Source: Chen et al. (1997). Geometric Control of Cell Life and Death. Science. doi:10.1126/science.276.5317.1425
  • Layer-by-layer assembly
    What it is: A method that builds thin films by dipping a surface into alternating solutions of oppositely charged molecules.
    Used for: Makes thin coatings for implants, sensors and drug-release films.
    Source: Decher (1997). Fuzzy Nanoassemblies: Toward Layered Polymeric Multicomposites. Science. doi:10.1126/science.277.5330.1232
  • Freeze casting
    What it is: A method that freezes a watery mix of particles. Growing ice crystals line the particles up, and then the ice is removed.
    Used for: Makes strong, layered materials that copy nacre (mother-of-pearl).
    Source: Deville et al. (2006). Freezing as a Path to Build Complex Composites. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1120937
  • DNA origami
    What it is: A method that folds a long DNA strand into a chosen shape using many short 'staple' strands.
    Used for: Used to build nanoscale shapes, scaffolds and tiny devices.
    Source: Rothemund (2006). Folding DNA to create nanoscale shapes and patterns. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature04586
  • Decellularised organ scaffolds
    What it is: A method that washes the cells out of an organ, leaving its natural protein framework.
    Used for: Gives a ready-made scaffold for regrowing tissue in the lab. An early example was a rat heart.
    Source: Ott et al. (2008). Perfusion-decellularized matrix: using nature's platform to engineer a bioartificial heart. Nature Medicine. doi:10.1038/nm1684
  • Organoids
    What it is: Tiny 3D clusters of tissue, grown from stem cells, that organise themselves like a mini organ.
    Used for: Help researchers study how organs grow and test drugs.
    Source: Sato et al. (2009). Single Lgr5 stem cells build crypt-villus structures in vitro without a mesenchymal niche. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature07935
  • Liver-Chip
    What it is: An organ-on-a-chip: human liver cells growing in tiny channels.
    Used for: Tests whether drugs might harm the liver before human trials.
    Source: Ewart et al. (2022). Performance assessment and economic analysis of a human Liver-Chip for predictive toxicology. Communications Medicine. doi:10.1038/s43856-022-00209-1

Cell and tissue culture

  • Hollow-fibre bioreactor
    What it is: A bioreactor where cells grow around bundles of tiny porous tubes. The tubes carry nutrients in and waste out.
    Used for: Grows cells packed densely, much like tissue.
    Source: Knazek et al. (1972). Cell Culture on Artificial Capillaries: An Approach to Tissue Growth in vitro. Science. doi:10.1126/science.178.4056.65
  • Microcarriers
    What it is: Tiny beads that cells stick to and grow on while floating in a stirred tank.
    Used for: Grows large numbers of cells that need a surface to attach to.
    Source: van Wezel (1967). Growth of Cell-strains and Primary Cells on Micro-carriers in Homogeneous Culture. Nature. doi:10.1038/216064a0
  • Cell impedance monitoring (ECIS)
    What it is: A method that grows cells on small electrodes and measures how much they block a weak electric current.
    Used for: Tracks cell growth, spreading and movement in real time, with no labels needed.
    Source: Giaever et al. (1984). Monitoring fibroblast behavior in tissue culture with an applied electric field. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.81.12.3761
  • Mass cytometry
    What it is: A form of flow cytometry (counting cells one by one as they stream past a detector). Cells are tagged with metal labels and read by a mass spectrometer.
    Used for: Measures dozens of markers on each single cell at once.
    Source: Bendall et al. (2011). Single-Cell Mass Cytometry of Differential Immune and Drug Responses Across a Human Hematopoietic Continuum. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1198704

Sequencing and measurement

  • Digital PCR
    What it is: A version of PCR (a DNA-copying reaction) that splits a sample into many tiny reactions and counts how many light up.
    Used for: Counts DNA molecules directly, without a reference curve. The counts are absolute but estimated statistically.
    Source: Vogelstein et al. (1999). Digital PCR. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.16.9236
  • LAMP DNA amplification
    What it is: A way of copying DNA at one steady temperature, with no heating and cooling cycles.
    Used for: Powers simple, quick DNA tests that need less equipment.
    Source: Notomi (2000). Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Research. doi:10.1093/nar/28.12.e63
  • PacBio HiFi long-read sequencing
    What it is: A sequencing method that reads the same long DNA piece many times around a loop. The result is long, very accurate reads.
    Used for: Reads whole genomes, including tricky repeated regions.
    Source: Wenger et al. (2019). Accurate circular consensus long-read sequencing improves variant detection and assembly of a human genome. Nature Biotechnology. doi:10.1038/s41587-019-0217-9
  • RNA-seq
    What it is: A method that copies a cell's RNA into DNA and then sequences it.
    Used for: Measures which genes are switched on, and how strongly.
    Source: Mortazavi et al. (2008). Mapping and quantifying mammalian transcriptomes by RNA-Seq. Nature Methods. doi:10.1038/nmeth.1226
  • DNA microarrays
    What it is: Glass slides spotted with thousands of DNA probes. A spot lights up when matching sample DNA sticks to it.
    Used for: Measures the activity of thousands of genes at once.
    Source: Schena et al. (1995). Quantitative Monitoring of Gene Expression Patterns with a Complementary DNA Microarray. Science. doi:10.1126/science.270.5235.467
  • Single-cell RNA sequencing (droplet)
    What it is: A method that seals single cells into tiny droplets with barcoded beads. Each cell's RNA can then be read separately.
    Used for: Finds the different cell types in a tissue.
    Source: Macosko et al. (2015). Highly Parallel Genome-wide Expression Profiling of Individual Cells Using Nanoliter Droplets. Cell. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.05.002
  • Single-cell multiomics
    What it is: Methods and software that combine several kinds of measurement, such as RNA and surface proteins, from the same single cells.
    Used for: Builds detailed maps of cell types.
    Source: Hao et al. (2021). Integrated analysis of multimodal single-cell data. Cell. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.04.048
  • Spatial transcriptomics
    What it is: A method that reads gene activity across a thin tissue slice while tracking where each reading came from.
    Used for: Maps which genes are active in which part of a tissue.
    Source: Ståhl et al. (2016). Visualization and analysis of gene expression in tissue sections by spatial transcriptomics. Science. doi:10.1126/science.aaf2403
  • Stereo-seq spatial mapping
    What it is: A spatial method that uses tiny DNA-barcoded spots on a chip. It maps gene activity across a large tissue at very fine detail.
    Used for: Makes detailed gene-activity maps of whole embryos.
    Source: Chen et al. (2022). Spatiotemporal transcriptomic atlas of mouse organogenesis using DNA nanoball-patterned arrays. Cell. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.003
  • Telomere-to-telomere genome assembly
    What it is: Combining long-read sequencing and computing to read each chromosome completely, from one end to the other.
    Used for: Produced the first complete, gap-free human genome in 2022, except the Y chromosome, which was finished in 2023.
    Source: Nurk et al. (2022). The complete sequence of a human genome. Science. doi:10.1126/science.abj6987 Also: Rhie et al. (2023). The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome. Nature.doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06457-y
  • Bradford protein assay
    What it is: A colour test where a dye turns blue when it binds protein. A spectrophotometer (a colour meter) measures how blue.
    Used for: Measures how much protein is in a sample.
    Source: Bradford (1976). A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry. doi:10.1016/0003-2697(76)90527-3
  • Enzymatic DNA synthesis
    What it is: A way of writing new DNA with an enzyme (TdT) that adds letters one by one, instead of with harsh chemicals.
    Used for: Being developed for faster, cleaner DNA writing.
    Source: Palluk et al. (2018). De novo DNA synthesis using polymerase-nucleotide conjugates. Nature Biotechnology. doi:10.1038/nbt.4173
  • DNA data storage
    What it is: Encoding digital files as DNA letters, then reading them back by sequencing.
    Used for: Explored as a very dense, long-lasting way to store data.
    Source: Church et al. (2012). Next-Generation Digital Information Storage in DNA. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1226355
  • DNA Fountain encoding
    What it is: A coding scheme for DNA data storage with built-in error correction.
    Used for: Stores data in DNA close to the theoretical maximum density.
    Source: Erlich et al. (2017). DNA Fountain enables a robust and efficient storage architecture. Science. doi:10.1126/science.aaj2038

Computational design

  • AlphaFold 3
    What it is: An AI model that predicts the 3D shapes of proteins together with the DNA, RNA and small molecules bound to them.
    Used for: Predicts how molecules fit together, helping with drug and protein design.
    Source: Abramson et al. (2024). Accurate structure prediction of biomolecular interactions with AlphaFold 3. Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07487-w
  • RoseTTAFold
    What it is: An AI model that predicts protein structures by weighing sequence, distances and 3D shape together.
    Used for: Predicts the structures of single proteins and protein pairs.
    Source: Baek et al. (2021). Accurate prediction of protein structures and interactions using a three-track neural network. Science. doi:10.1126/science.abj8754
  • Rosetta de novo protein design
    What it is: Software that searches for amino acid sequences that will fold into a new shape a designer picks.
    Used for: Designs new proteins. It made Top7, a fold not seen in nature.
    Source: Kuhlman et al. (2003). Design of a Novel Globular Protein Fold with Atomic-Level Accuracy. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1089427
  • RFdiffusion
    What it is: An AI model that generates new protein backbones from random noise, much as image generators create pictures.
    Used for: Designs new proteins, such as binders and enzymes.
    Source: Watson et al. (2023). De novo design of protein structure and function with RFdiffusion. Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06415-8
  • ProteinMPNN
    What it is: An AI model that suggests amino acid sequences likely to fold into a given protein backbone.
    Used for: Pairs with tools like RFdiffusion to turn designed shapes into real sequences.
    Source: Dauparas et al. (2022). Robust deep learning–based protein sequence design using ProteinMPNN. Science. doi:10.1126/science.add2187
  • ESM protein language model
    What it is: An AI language model trained on millions of protein sequences.
    Used for: Predicts protein structure quickly from a single sequence.
    Source: Lin et al. (2023). Evolutionary-scale prediction of atomic-level protein structure with a language model. Science. doi:10.1126/science.ade2574
  • ESM3
    What it is: A larger AI model that handles protein sequence, structure and function together.
    Used for: Generates new proteins. Its paper made a new glowing protein.
    Source: Hayes et al. (2025). Simulating 500 million years of evolution with a language model. Science. doi:10.1126/science.ads0018
  • Evo genome language model
    What it is: An AI model trained on DNA sequences from many microbes and phages (viruses that infect bacteria).
    Used for: Predicts and generates DNA, RNA and protein sequences.
    Source: Nguyen et al. (2024). Sequence modeling and design from molecular to genome scale with Evo. Science. doi:10.1126/science.ado9336
  • Evo 2 (preprint)
    What it is: A larger DNA language model trained across all domains of life. Reported in a preprint, not yet peer reviewed.
    Used for: Proposed for predicting effects of DNA changes and generating sequences.
    Source: Brixi et al. (2025). Genome modeling and design across all domains of life with Evo 2. bioRxiv. Preprint (not peer reviewed). doi:10.1101/2025.02.18.638918
  • Boltz-1 (preprint)
    What it is: An open-source AI model that predicts the structures of biomolecules and their complexes. Reported in a preprint, not yet peer reviewed.
    Used for: Offers a freely available option for structure prediction.
    Source: Wohlwend et al. (2024). Boltz-1: Democratizing Biomolecular Interaction Modeling. bioRxiv. Preprint (not peer reviewed). doi:10.1101/2024.11.19.624167
  • Molecular dynamics (GROMACS)
    What it is: Software that uses physics to simulate how every atom in a molecule moves over time.
    Used for: Shows how proteins bend, bind and fold.
    Source: Abraham et al. (2015). GROMACS: High performance molecular simulations through multi-level parallelism from laptops to supercomputers. SoftwareX. doi:10.1016/j.softx.2015.06.001
  • CHARMM molecular simulation
    What it is: An early, widely used program and force field (a rule set for how atoms push and pull) for simulating biomolecules.
    Used for: Calculates the energies and motions of proteins and membranes.
    Source: Brooks et al. (1983). CHARMM : A program for macromolecular energy, minimization, and dynamics calculations. Journal of Computational Chemistry. doi:10.1002/jcc.540040211
  • Molecular docking (AutoDock Vina)
    What it is: Software that tries many poses of a small molecule in a protein pocket and scores each one.
    Used for: Predicts how drug-like molecules may bind.
    Source: Trott et al. (2009). AutoDock Vina: Improving the speed and accuracy of docking with a new scoring function, efficient optimization, and multithreading. Journal of Computational Chemistry. doi:10.1002/jcc.21334
  • Density functional theory (DFT)
    What it is: A quantum physics method for calculating how electrons behave in molecules and solids.
    Used for: Predicts the properties of new materials before anyone makes them.
    Source: Kohn et al. (1965). Self-Consistent Equations Including Exchange and Correlation Effects. Physical Review. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.140.A1133
  • Materials Project database
    What it is: An open online database of computed properties for many thousands of materials.
    Used for: Used to search for and screen candidate materials.
    Source: Jain et al. (2013). Commentary: The Materials Project: A materials genome approach to accelerating materials innovation. APL Materials. doi:10.1063/1.4812323
  • GNoME materials discovery
    What it is: A deep-learning system that predicts which new crystals should be stable.
    Used for: Proposed millions of new candidate crystal structures.
    Source: Merchant et al. (2023). Scaling deep learning for materials discovery. Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06735-9
  • Protein Data Bank (PDB)
    What it is: The worldwide open archive of 3D structures of proteins, DNA and RNA.
    Used for: Used as the main source of structures for design and AI training.
    Source: Berman (2000). The Protein Data Bank. Nucleic Acids Research. doi:10.1093/nar/28.1.235
  • SBOL design standard
    What it is: A shared format for describing genetic designs, so different software can exchange them.
    Used for: Records and shares designs of genetic parts and circuits.
    Source: Galdzicki et al. (2014). The Synthetic Biology Open Language (SBOL) provides a community standard for communicating designs in synthetic biology. Nature Biotechnology. doi:10.1038/nbt.2891
  • Cello genetic circuit design
    What it is: Software that turns a written logic design into the DNA sequence for a genetic circuit.
    Used for: Automates the design of genetic logic circuits.
    Source: Nielsen et al. (2016). Genetic circuit design automation. Science. doi:10.1126/science.aac7341
  • Flux balance analysis
    What it is: A computer method that predicts how materials flow through a cell's network of chemical reactions.
    Used for: Helps plan changes to cells so they make useful products.
    Source: Orth et al. (2010). What is flux balance analysis?. Nature Biotechnology. doi:10.1038/nbt.1614

Lab automation

  • Biofoundries
    What it is: Facilities that combine robots, software and data to design, build and test biological designs at scale.
    Used for: Speed up engineering biology work.
    Source: Hillson et al. (2019). Building a global alliance of biofoundries. Nature Communications. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-10079-2
  • Robot scientist
    What it is: A robotic system that forms hypotheses, runs experiments and interprets results with little human help.
    Used for: An early example, Adam, studied yeast genes.
    Source: King et al. (2009). The Automation of Science. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1165620
  • Mobile robotic chemist
    What it is: A mobile robot, guided by AI, that moves around a normal lab and uses its instruments as a person would.
    Used for: Searches for better chemical recipes on its own.
    Source: Burger et al. (2020). A mobile robotic chemist. Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2442-2
  • A-Lab autonomous materials lab
    What it is: A self-driving lab that uses robots and AI to plan, make and test new inorganic powders.
    Used for: Tries to make new materials that computers have predicted. Its paper reported making 41 new compounds, a claim other scientists have disputed.
    Source: Szymanski et al. (2023). An autonomous laboratory for the accelerated synthesis of inorganic materials. Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06734-w Also: Leeman et al. (2024). Challenges in High-Throughput Inorganic Materials Prediction and Autonomous Synthesis. PRX Energy.doi:10.1103/PRXEnergy.3.011002
  • Acoustic liquid handling
    What it is: A method that uses sound pulses to launch tiny droplets from one plate to another, without touching them.
    Used for: Moves very small liquid volumes quickly and precisely.
    Source: Ellson et al. (2003). Transfer of low nanoliter volumes between microplates using focused acoustics-automation considerations. Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation. doi:10.1016/S1535-5535(03)00011-X
  • High-throughput screening
    What it is: Using robots, plate readers and software to test huge numbers of samples quickly.
    Used for: Finds promising molecules among very large collections.
    Source: Macarron et al. (2011). Impact of high-throughput screening in biomedical research. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. doi:10.1038/nrd3368
  • PACE continuous directed evolution
    What it is: A system where a virus that infects only bacteria evolves a chosen gene nonstop, over many rounds.
    Used for: Evolves improved proteins quickly: the first paper ran about 200 rounds in about 8 days.
    Source: Esvelt et al. (2011). A system for the continuous directed evolution of biomolecules. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature09929

Biosensors and electrophysiology

  • Enzyme glucose electrode
    What it is: A sensor that pairs an electrode with an enzyme that reacts with glucose.
    Used for: The ancestor of today's glucose meters.
    Source: Clark et al. (1962). ELECTRODE SYSTEMS FOR CONTINUOUS MONITORING IN CARDIOVASCULAR SURGERY. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x
  • Ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET)
    What it is: A transistor whose current changes with the ions touching its surface.
    Used for: Powers tiny pH and chemical sensors.
    Source: Bergveld (1970). Development of an Ion-Sensitive Solid-State Device for Neurophysiological Measurements. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. doi:10.1109/TBME.1970.4502688
  • Wearable sweat sensors
    What it is: Flexible patches with sensors and electronics that read chemicals in sweat.
    Used for: Track things like glucose and salts right on the skin.
    Source: Gao et al. (2016). Fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature16521
  • Epidermal electronics
    What it is: Ultra-thin, stretchy electronics that stick to skin like a temporary tattoo.
    Used for: Record heart, muscle and brain signals comfortably.
    Source: Kim et al. (2011). Epidermal Electronics. Science. doi:10.1126/science.1206157
  • Paper microfluidic tests
    What it is: Paper patterned with water-repelling ink, so liquid wicks along set paths.
    Used for: Makes low-cost test strips.
    Source: Martinez et al. (2007). Patterned Paper as a Platform for Inexpensive, Low‐Volume, Portable Bioassays. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. doi:10.1002/anie.200603817
  • Paper-based cell-free biosensors
    What it is: Freeze-dried gene circuits on paper, working without living cells. They switch on and change colour when they sense a chosen target molecule.
    Used for: Make cheap, portable sensors.
    Source: Pardee et al. (2014). Paper-based synthetic gene networks. Cell. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.10.004
  • Patch clamp
    What it is: A method that seals a fine glass pipette onto a cell membrane to record tiny currents through single channels.
    Used for: Shows how nerve and muscle cells signal.
    Source: Neher et al. (1976). Single-channel currents recorded from membrane of denervated frog muscle fibres. Nature. doi:10.1038/260799a0
  • Microelectrode arrays (MEA)
    What it is: Dishes or chips with many small electrodes that record the electrical activity of cells grown on them.
    Used for: Study networks of nerve or heart cells.
    Source: Thomas et al. (1972). A miniature microelectrode array to monitor the bioelectric activity of cultured cells. Experimental Cell Research. doi:10.1016/0014-4827(72)90481-8
  • Neuropixels probes
    What it is: Thin silicon probes with hundreds of recording sites along their length.
    Used for: Record from many brain cells at once in research animals.
    Source: Jun et al. (2017). Fully integrated silicon probes for high-density recording of neural activity. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature24636
  • Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GCaMP)
    What it is: Engineered proteins that glow brighter when calcium rises inside a cell.
    Used for: Let researchers watch nerve cells fire under a microscope.
    Source: Chen et al. (2013). Ultrasensitive fluorescent proteins for imaging neuronal activity. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature12354
  • Optogenetics
    What it is: Using light-sensitive proteins so cells can be switched on or off with light.
    Used for: Controls nerve-cell activity precisely in research.
    Source: Boyden et al. (2005). Millisecond-timescale, genetically targeted optical control of neural activity. Nature Neuroscience. doi:10.1038/nn1525

Fermentation and bioprocessing

  • Continuous bioprocessing
    What it is: Running production and purification nonstop, instead of in separate batches.
    Used for: Makes bioproduction smaller, steadier and cheaper.
    Source: Konstantinov et al. (2015). White Paper on Continuous Bioprocessing May 20–21 2014 Continuous Manufacturing Symposium. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. doi:10.1002/jps.24268
  • Yeast fermentation of plant medicines
    What it is: Engineering baker's yeast to make a precursor of a plant medicine in big fermenters.
    Used for: Produces artemisinic acid for the antimalarial drug artemisinin.
    Source: Paddon et al. (2013). High-level semi-synthetic production of the potent antimalarial artemisinin. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature12051
  • Engineered chemical production
    What it is: Engineering a harmless lab microbe so that fermentation makes an industrial chemical normally made from oil.
    Used for: Produces 1,4-butanediol for plastics.
    Source: Yim et al. (2011). Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for direct production of 1,4-butanediol. Nature Chemical Biology. doi:10.1038/nchembio.580
  • Gas fermentation
    What it is: Fermentation where microbes feed on gases such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
    Used for: Turns industrial waste gases into fuels and chemicals.
    Source: Liew et al. (2016). Gas Fermentation—A Flexible Platform for Commercial Scale Production of Low-Carbon-Fuels and Chemicals from Waste and Renewable Feedstocks. Frontiers in Microbiology. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.00694
  • Sc2.0 synthetic yeast genome
    What it is: An international project that is rebuilding yeast's chromosomes from designed, synthetic DNA.
    Used for: A platform for redesigning genomes for research and industry.
    Source: Zhao et al. (2023). Debugging and consolidating multiple synthetic chromosomes reveals combinatorial genetic interactions. Cell. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2023.09.025